《F-35闪电II的试飞》（F-35 Lightning II Flight Tests），原载于2007年第三季的《Code One》杂志
F-35 Lightning II Flight Tests
Chief Test Pilot Recounts Early Flights
By Eric Hehs
F-35闪电II的试飞
首席试飞员讲述初期的飞行
作者 埃里克·赫斯
The F-35 Lightning II took to the air for the first time on 15 December 2006 with chief test pilot Jon Beesley at the controls. During this maiden flight, Beesley performed a military power takeoff and executed a series of maneuvers to evaluate the handling qualities of the aircraft. The airplane flew to 15,000 feet and a maximum speed of 225 knots. The F-35 test program has since expanded the flight envelope of this first Lightning II and will continue to expand the envelope in the coming months. More importantly, this first aircraft is being used to evaluate the performance of highly sophisticated subsystems that form a baseline for subsequent F-35s.
F-35闪电II于2006年12月15日由首席试飞员乔恩·比斯利驾驶进行了首次飞行。在这次处女航过程中，比斯利在军用推力状态下起飞并执行了一系列的飞行动作来评估飞机的操作品质。飞机飞到了15,000英尺，最大飞行速度达到了225节。F-35的试飞项目从拓展首架闪电II的飞行包线开始，然后将在接下来的几个月里继续拓展这一包线。更为重要的是，首架飞机正被用于评价将构成后续F-35性能基准的各个极其尖端的子系统的性能。
Beesley has an extensive flight test résumé that begins with graduation from the US Air Force Test Pilot School in 1979. After working on several classified programs, he became one of the first USAF pilots to fly the F-117. When he left the Air Force in 1986 to join General Dynamics in Fort Worth, Texas, he initially flew developmental flight tests for an innovative night attack system for the F-16 called Falcon Eye. This program was one of the first to use helmet-mounted displays, or HMDs, and head-steered infrared devices on a tactical aircraft.
1979年毕业于美国空军试飞员学校的比斯利具有丰富的飞行履历。在多个保密项目中工作过之后，他成为了最早一批飞F-117的飞行员之一。1986年离开空军之后他加入了位于得克萨斯州沃斯堡的通用动力公司，他最早接手的试飞项目是一套供F-16使用的被称为“隼眼”的夜间攻击革新系统。这个项目也是在一架战术飞机上最早使用头盔内嵌显示器（即HMD）和头瞄红外设备的项目之一。
In 1990, Beesley became a project test pilot on the YF-22 during the Advanced Tactical Fighter competition. He was principally involved with evaluating and demonstrating the flying qualities of the YF-22. Many of these flights demonstrated the tremendous high angle of attack capabilities of the aircraft. Longtime Code One readers may recall his article on flight testing the YF-22, “Report From the Future,” in 1991.
到了1990年，比斯利成为了先进战术战斗机（即ATF）对比试飞期间YF-22的一名项目试飞员。他主要从事YF-22飞行品质的评估和演示。其中的大多数飞行都是在演示YF-22的大迎角能力。《Code One》的长期读者应该还记得他在1991年撰写的名为《来自未来的报告》的YF-22试飞文章。
After the US Air Force selected the F-22 as the winner of the Advanced Tactical Fighter competition, Beesley became the Fort Worth project pilot for the F-22 program. He was the second pilot to fly the Raptor and one of the lead pilots in envelope expansion flights. Over his career, he has accumulated more than 5,000 hours of flight time in more than forty-five different types of aircraft.
在美国空军选中了F-22作为先进战术战斗机对比试飞的优胜者之后，比斯利成为了沃斯堡F-22项目的项目试飞员。他是飞上“猛禽”的第二名飞行员，也是进行包线拓展飞行的两名主力试飞员之一。他的履历表的最后注明，他已经在45种以上不同型号的飞机上积累了超过5,000小时的飞行时间。
Beesley became chief test pilot for the F-35 program in 2002. He will be in charge of flight testing all three variants to be produced: the F-35A conventional takeoff and landing, or CTOL, variant; the F-35B short takeoff/vertical landing, or STOVL, variant; and the F-35C carrier variant, or CV. Code One editor Eric Hehs interviewed him for his impressions of flying the first F-35 and for his perspective on flight testing this and subsequent Lightning II fighters.
比斯利于2002年成为F-35项目的首席试飞员。他将主管所有三种生产型号的试飞：F-35A常规起降型，即CTOL；F-35B短矩起飞/垂直降落型，即STOVL；还有F-35C舰载型，即CV。《Code One》编辑埃里克·赫斯就首飞F-35的印象对他进行了采访，从他试飞的角度来审视这架飞机和后续的闪电II战斗机。
What is your strongest memory from the first flight of the F-35?
F-35首飞给您留下的最强烈的印象是什么？
The thrust impressed me most. The first flight profile called for the F-35 to immediately go to 15,000 feet. I had to keep the speed at 225 knots during the climb since I had to keep the gear down, which limited the maximum speed.
给我印象最为深刻的是它的推力。首飞的预案要求F-35快速爬升到15,000英尺。由于在这个过程中我要保持起落架处于放下状态（译注：新机首次试飞为保险起见，都不收起落架），我不得不把速度限制在225节，这样一来就无法以最大速度爬升。
I used nose attitude instead of modulating engine thrust to control airspeed during the climb to 15,000 feet. In other words, I had to raise the nose to slow down the airplane. I took off and started pulling back on the stick. I had to keep pulling back to stop from accelerating over the 225-knot limit. So I reached a rather steep angle, about twenty-five degrees of pitch. The steep angle, witnessed by the crowds on the ground, highlighted the raw power I was experiencing in the cockpit. The thrust surprised me. Not in the sense of “Gee, how am I going to handle all of this power?” But more like, “Wow, this is more than I expected.”
在爬升至15,000英尺高度的过程中我用机首的高度代替发动机节流阀来控制飞行速度。换句话说，我用抬高机头来降低飞机的速度。在起飞后我开始往后拉操纵杆。我要一直拉住操纵杆来防止飞机的速度超过225节的限制。很快我就把机头拉到了一个非常高的角度，大约25度这样。这样一个大的角度，地面上的人员也都看到了，突出证实了我在驾驶舱里感受到的原生动力。这样的推力让我感到惊讶。这种惊讶不是说“咦，这么大的推力我要怎么用？”的不知所措，而更像是“哇，这推力比我想象的还要大”的那种惊喜。
What was your overall impression of the airplane after that flight?
你在首飞之后对这架飞机的整体印象如何？
Overall, I was impressed by how well the entire first flight came together. I started the airplane, ran through all of our ground checks, taxied out to the end of the runway, and took off. The test team told me I taxied out to the end of the runway much faster than I did for any of the taxi tests. But I was ready to go and so was the airplane.
总的来说，我对这架飞机的综合表现是如此的优秀而留下深刻的印象。我启动飞机之后，按程序完成了所有地面检查内容，滑跑到跑道头的位置，然后起飞。测试小组告诉我说我滑跑到跑道头的过程要比我以前进行滑跑试验时快一些。我真的是想快一点飞起来，飞机也一样。
I was also pleased with how smoothly the airplane went through all the ground checks and how smoothly the airplane flew. As an example, the flap schedules on the original F-22 shook the Raptor at speeds above 200 knots. This objectionable buffet was addressed right away through a software change. Paul Metz [first pilot to fly the F-22] and I are the only two pilots who ever experienced that buffeting. I thought that I might experience some sort of buffeting with the first F-35, but I didn’t.
我也对飞机能够如此顺利地完成所有的地面检查以及飞机飞行时是如此的平稳感到满意。举个例子，F-22原始型号的襟翼在飞到200节左右时会跟约定般地使“猛禽”产生振动。通过飞控软件上的一个修改我们马上找到了产生这种令人讨厌的振动的成因。保罗·梅斯[第一名飞F-22的飞行员]和我是仅有的两名体验过这种振动的飞行员。我原本想我也会在F-35的首飞过程中遇到一定程度的振动，但实际上没有。
We learned a lot from the F-22. Our engineers deserve a lot of credit. In fact, many of those who completed the checkout and testing of similar systems on the F-22 Raptor are performing the same work on the F-35. To name a few prominent examples: Kevin McTeague works on electrical systems; John Magbuhat works on flight controls; Paul Thoennes works on hydraulics; and Roy Schoberle from Pratt & Whitney works on the F135 engine. Many others with similar experience did the design integration work over the last several years. We also have some seasoned veterans involved in flight testing the new airplanes, which includes Mary Beth O’Loughlin as the test conductor for the first flight. We have a great team.
我们在F-22上学会了很多东西。我们的工程师们完全值得信赖。事实上，有许多完成了F-22“猛禽”战机检测模拟系统的工程师们正在F-35上从事相同的工作。我可以指名道姓地举出一些突出的例子：凯文·麦克提格负责电子系统；约翰·梅格巴黑特负责飞行控制；保罗·希尼斯负责液压系统；还有来自普·惠公司的负责F135发动机的罗伊·斯库伯勒。有许多有着类似工作经验的工程师们在过去的几年里从事着综合设计的工作。我们还有一些经验丰富的熟练人员参加了新飞机的飞行测试，其中包括了担任首飞任务指挥长的玛丽·贝丝·奥洛夫琳。我们有一支很了不起的团队。
How has your impression of the F-35 changed in subsequent flights?
你对F-35在后来试飞中的印象又是如何？
I continue to be impressed with the performance of the aircraft. The F-16s flying chase don’t have near the fuel capacity or payload capability as the F-35. The Lightning II does very well in comparison. For example, the F-35 often forces the chase aircraft into afterburner when it is in military power.
我对这架飞机的性能留下的深刻印象还在继续。伴随飞行F-16并没有F-35这样的载油能力和挂载能力。闪电II相比之下要优秀的多。举个例子，F-35在军用推力状态下经常迫使追击它的飞机要打开加力。
The airplane’s handling qualities continue to be very good throughout the flight envelope. When I raise the landing gear, the airplane flies very smoothly. The landing gear is sequenced, which is unique for a fighter. The nose gear comes up first, then the main gear follows. The gears drop down in reverse order. Another strong impression is that the airplane wants to fly a lot faster than we are allowed to fly at this point in the flight test program. Most of the time we fly at about thirty to forty percent of available thrust. This airplane can go out to high subsonic speeds very easily without using afterburner.
在整个飞行包线内这架飞机的操纵品质也是相当的出色。当我收起起落架后，飞机的飞行变得非常平稳。起落架的收放是有先后顺序的，这对于一架战斗机来说也是独一无二的。机首的起落架首先收起，然后才是主起落架。起落架的放下则依照相反的顺序。另外一个深刻印象就是这架飞机总是要比我们在当前试飞进度所允许的飞行速度飞的快一点。在大多数的时间里我们都是在有效推力百分之三十到四十的状态下飞行。这架飞机能够很轻松地在不打开加力的状态下飞到高亚音速。
Describe the basic progression of the first flight tests.
请描述一下首飞测试的基本过程。
On the first flight takeoff, we received an air data degrade caution message. It indicated a mismatch in the lower-level comparison in the air data system, specifically with angle of attack. However, we had no loss of capability. Simply put, readings from the right and left air data probes need to agree within a certain tolerance, and they didn’t on the first flight.
在第一次飞行起飞之后，我们接收到了一条大气数据减少的警告信息。这表明在大气数据系统在比较基准方面有匹配不当的问题，特别是在迎角状态下。但是，我们并没有因此而影响飞行能力。在简单地打开开关读取左右大气数据探针的数据形成确定的容差值之后，这些警告信息在首飞过程中就再也没有出现过。
Because the air data system is redundant, we were able to fly on the left probe after the right one was turned off. The caution message cut the flight short, but we still managed to perform some of the planned maneuver blocks, which included throttle transients and one-half stick and pedal inputs. The handling qualities in these maneuvers were excellent with a notably smoother response and a better roll rate than I expected.
因为大气数据系统是有冗余的，我们可以在关掉右边的大气数据探针之后依靠左边的一个来飞行。这个警告信息使得飞行时间被缩短了，但我们仍然安排完成了一些计划中的飞行动作，其中包括节流阀瞬变、半杆操作和方向舵操作。在这些机动过程中所表现出来的操纵品质相当出色，响应也特别地平稳，滚转率也要比我期待的要快。
The greatest accomplishment of the first flight was the performance of the subsystems. The integrated power package, electrical, electro-hydrostatic actuators, flight control computers, and other subsystems worked without a problem for the entire flight. The performance of these systems is a great testimony to the team that brought the F-35 to first flight. After the faulty probe was replaced, we performed an additional 110-knot taxi test on 4 January to calibrate the new probe. We gathered additional air data on subsequent flights during January to further calibrate the air data system.
首飞当中最伟大的成功要数各个子系统的表现。综合动力组件，供电系统，电子-液压驱动装置，飞行控制计算机，还有其它的子系统在整个飞行过程当中没有出一点的问题。这些系统的表现是促成F-35首飞的各个团队的一个伟大证明。在更换过有问题的大气数据探针之后，我们在1月4日又额外进行了的110节滑跑测试来校准新的探针。我们在1月以后的后续飞行当中获取了更多的数据在校准大气数据系统。
On Flight 2, we cycled the landing gear and then flew formation for the first time with the gear up. On Flight 3, we performed the first military power takeoff. On Flight 4, we performed the first low-altitude maneuvering. On Flight 5, we performed the first afterburner engine transient as well as performing other engine transient testing. On Flight 6, we conducted a fuel dump test. This test was conducted early in the flight test program to gather real-world data to inform design decisions on the fuel dump mechanization for the carrier variant, or F-35C. We performed higher angle of attack maneuvers on Flight 6 as well.
在第二次试飞时，我们尝试收起了起落架并且接着第一次在收起起落架的状态下进行了编队飞行。在第三次试飞时，我们进行了首次军用推力状态下的起飞。在第4次试飞时，我们进行了第一次的低空机动。在第5次试飞时，我们实验了首次加力状态下的发动机瞬态并同时实验了其它的一些发动机瞬态测试。在第6次试飞时，我们进行了泻油测试。这个测试被安排在了试飞进度的初期以便收集真实的数据来形成舰载型号即F-35C的泻油机构设计时所需的决策依据。我们还在第6次试飞时进行了更大迎角的机动。
On Flight 7, we evaluated the speed brake operation. The F-35, like the F-22, doesn’t have a dedicated speed brake like most previous fighters. Instead, it decelerates through the flight control software by deflecting control surfaces in the same manner as the Raptor. We use the leading-edge flaps as well as the trailing-edge flaps and the rudders to slow the airplane. Unlike the F-22, the F-35A and F-35B have no ailerons. That explains why it uses a combination of leading- and trailing-edge flaps and rudders to slow down. I found that the buffet levels were very low, essentially the same as buffet levels of the F-16 with the speed brake in operation. Deceleration rates in the F-35 are similar to the F-16 as well, which is a design goal.
在第7次试飞时，我们测试了减速操作的工作情况。F-35类似于F-22，并没有和以前的战斗机一样有一个专门的减速板。取而代之的是，它是象“猛禽”那样通过飞行控制软件偏转控制面来实现减速的。我们同时使用前缘襟翼和后缘襟翼还有方向舵来使飞机减速。与F-22所不同的是，F-35A和F-35B没有副翼。这也解释了为什么它要用前缘襟翼和后缘襟翼还有方向舵的这样一种联动来降低速度。我发现相比较于F-16在使用减速板时产生的振动来说，飞机振动的级别非常小。F-35的减速速率与F-16基本相当，这也是当初设计的目标。On Flight 8, we flew the software fix for the air data system issues we saw on the first flight. The new software allowed me to use full lateral stick rolling maneuvers. Handling qualities during these rolls were outstanding with roll rates matching predictions. We had to cut this flight short because our chase aircraft had a mechanical problem.
在第8次试飞时，我们使用了改正了我们在首飞时遇到大气数据系统问题的新版软件。新版软件允许我使用全侧杆进行滚转机动。在这些滚转过程中操纵品质极其出色，滚转率与之匹配的也很准确。由于伴随飞行的飞机出现了机械故障，我们不得不提前结束了这次试飞。
On Flight 9, we performed the first afterburner takeoff. Flight 9 was also our longest flight to that point, 1.5 hours. We took off with 3,500 pounds short of a full fuel load and landed with about 4,000 pounds of fuel remaining. So we shorted ourselves more fuel than the entire internal fuel capacity of an F-16 and still flew for 1.5 hours without aerial refueling. During Flight 9, we also flew close formations, power approaches, and maneuver blocks to sixteen-degrees angle of attack at 20,000 feet.
在第9次试飞时，我们进行了首次加力状态下的起飞。第9次试飞也是当时我们所进行的时间最长的一次试飞，持续了1.5个小时。我们起飞时携带了接近满载油量的3,500磅油量，降落时机内的剩余油量大约为4,000磅。我们在没有满载燃油的情况下携带的油料也比F-16整个机内油箱所能携带的油料要多的多，并且还在没有空中加油的前提下飞行了1.5个小时。在第9次试飞中，我们还飞了密集编队，断电恢复，以及20,000英尺高度16度大迎角状态下的机动。
On Flight 10, we flew with the HMD for the first time. The mission included full-stick 360-degree rolls, snap engine transients in afterburner, and close formation flying. We also landed in fifteen-knot crosswinds for the first time. Flight 11 involved several lower altitude maneuver blocks as well as maneuvering with the speed brake. Jeff Knowles, the second pilot to fly the F-35, completed his first flight on Flight 12. I took the aircraft to 30,000 feet on Flight 13, performed a touch-and-go landing, completed maneuvers to seventeen-degrees angle of attack, and cycled the aerial refueling door.
在第10次试飞时，我们第一次使用HMD进行了飞行。飞行任务包括360库的全杆滚转，将发动机瞬态保持在加力状态，以及密集编队飞行。我们还首次完成了在15节侧风状态下的降落。第11次试飞涉及了多项减速同时的低空机动内容。杰夫·隆勒斯，第二名飞F-35的试飞员，在第12次试飞时完成了他在F-35上的首次飞行。在第13次试飞时我把飞机飞到了30,000英尺的高度，进行了一次起落架擦地复飞的降落，完成了17度迎角状态下的机动飞行，并且测试了空中加油舱的舱门。
As far as envelope expansion goes, we have conducted engine transients up to maximum afterburner from takeoff to 30,000 feet. We have been to 345 knots, 3.5 g’s, and sixteen-degrees angle of attack and seventeen degrees with the landing gear down. We have three engines available for AA-1 but have flown only one. We want to fly as many hours as we can on it.
随着飞行包线的拓展，我们已经能够在从起飞到爬升至30,000英尺的过程中将发动机瞬态提升至最大加力。我们飞到了345节，3.5个G，16度迎角以及在起落架放下的状态下的17度迎角飞行。我们为AA-1号试飞机准备了3台发动机，但我们只用其中的一台飞行。我们让它飞尽可能多的时数。
Summing up the flying characteristics: the F-35 flies a lot like the F-22 and has the size and feel of an F-16. The F-35 is a solid and very responsive airplane.
飞行特性可以总结如下：F-35飞行时很像F-22，同时在尺寸上和飞行感觉上类似于F-16。F-35是一架可靠的并且非常敏捷的飞机。
How does this test progression compare to previous fighter flight test programs you have worked?
此次的试飞过程与您之前参加过的试飞项目相比又是如何呢？
The F-35 envelope expansion and flying qualities work is similar to previous fighter programs. That similarity may give the impression that we’re conducting the same tests in the same ways. But that impression is false. A superficial comparison between the development of this fighter and the development of legacy fighters neglects mission capability.
F-35飞行包线的拓展和飞行品质的确定和之前的战斗机项目是类似的。这种类似可能会带来我们正在用相同的方法进行相同的测试这样的印象。但这种印象是错误的。这架飞机在开发过程与以往的战斗机开发过程中忽视任务能力的做法相比有着明显的不同。
Our customers are getting a whole lot more in the F-35 program. They are getting a baseline configuration with capabilities that required twenty or thirty years to develop for the F-16: infrared sensors, targeting pods, night vision systems, head-mounted cueing systems, and agile beam radars to name a few. During those years of development, the Air Force and Lockheed Martin conducted separate test programs to validate those capabilities. Those capabilities are all incorporated in this phase of the F-35 program. A truer comparison between legacy programs and the F-35 program would include the development time and cost for these additional capabilities.
我们的客户除了F-35这个项目之外还有许多工作内容。他们具有为F-16进行二十年或三十年改进所需要的进行整体性能规划的能力：比如红外传感器，目标照射吊舱，夜视系统，头盔内嵌指示系统，以及捷变波束雷达等一系列知名的技术。在这么多年的开发过程中，空军和洛克希德·马丁公司引入了独立的测试项目来验证这种能力。这样一种能力将全面综合到这个阶段的F-35项目中。要将以往的项目和F-35项目进行完整的比较将涉及到开发时间和引入这种额外能力后的代价等方面的内容。
Are any of these capabilities and systems unique to the F-35?
这些能力和系统是F-35所独有的么？
The F-35 has many unique capabilities. The helmet-mounted display and the integrated power package, or IPP, are two good examples. We began flying the HMD on Flight 10 and have flown with it on all succeeding flights. The HMD is much more than a helmet-mounted sight, which is flying in operational F-16s today as the joint helmet-mounted cueing system, better known as JHMCS. Our HMD also functions as a head-up display. That is, it shows all the information normally placed on the HUD, including speed, altitude, heading, and flight path information.
F-35有许多独特的能力。头盔内嵌显示技术和综合动力组件，即IPP，是两个很好的例子。我们在第10次试飞时开始用头盔内嵌显示器飞行并且在此后的飞行中一始使用它进行飞行。头盔内嵌显示器不仅仅只是一个像现在已经在F-16作战飞行中使用的联合头盔内嵌指示系统——即广为人知的JHMCS——那样嵌在头盔上的指示器，我们的头盔内嵌显示器还能够提供平显的功能。也就是说，它显示了所有通常在平显上才能够有的信息，包括速度、高度、方向以及飞行路径的信息。
The system is working very well, and pilots quickly forget that the flight symbology is being displayed on the helmet rather than on a conventional head-up display. We don’t have a HUD on the first F-35. And we have no plans to put one in any other F-35. Putting an HMD in the first airplane is a gutsy call. We are on track with its development. The initial results of incorporating an HMD in the test program have been better than we expected. The HMD is a significant jump in technology. This system has been performing very well.
这个系统工作的非常出色，飞行员很快就忘记了那些飞行符号是显示在头盔上而不是传统的平显上。在我们的第一架F-35上面没有平显。我们也没有打算要在其它任何一架的F-35上安装上一个。将头盔内嵌显示器在第一架飞机上投入使用是一个勇敢的预言。我们将沿着这一方向的轨迹发展下去。在试飞小组里头盔内嵌显示器协同的初步结果要比我们期昐的要好的多。头盔内嵌显示器是技术上的一次飞越。这个系统表现的非常出色。
The IPP, my second example, is a sophisticated turbine that acts as the auxiliary power unit on engine starts. When the engine is running, the IPP functions as an environmental control system, or ECS. When required, it also functions as an emergency power unit during emergency mode transitions. The IPP, then, performs the functions of three subsystems found on legacy fighters.
综合动力组件，也就是我所举的第二个例子，是一台在发动机启动过程中扮演辅助动力角色的技术成熟的涡轮发动机。当发动机运转起来时，综合动力组件就转到环境控制系统，也就是ECS发挥作用。在必要时，它还可以在应急模式转换下起到应用供电单元的作用。于是，综合动力组件就在以住战斗机的三个子系统里发挥作用。
The first F-35 represents a configuration of the aircraft before the company undertook a significant weight-reduction effort. Why is the program testing an aircraft that is not completely representative of subsequent production models?
首架F-35代表了设计公司在采取重要减重措施前的飞机框架布局。为什么此次试飞项目要试飞一种并不完全代表后续生产型号的飞机呢？
While the internal structure may be different, the shape of this first F-35 is almost identical to subsequent production versions. So gathering aerodynamic data on this configuration gives us an opportunity to evaluate performance characteristics on a real aircraft as opposed to making predictions using models or simulations. Additionally, testing and integrating all of the new systems in the F-35, as I described previously, gives us more than a year’s head start on problems that we may encounter in testing and integrating these same systems in subsequent aircraft. Along with the HMD and IPP, other systems and features incorporated on subsequent F-35s include the F135 engine, electrical system, fuel system, electro-hydrostatic actuators, cockpit, weapon bay doors, and bay ventilation. So this first version of the Lightning II gives us an outstanding opportunity to reduce risk as we move forward with the program.
尽管进气口的结构还可能会有不同，但首架F-35的外形与后续生产型号大致上是相同的。因此在这种框架布局下采集空气动力学数据，会给我们一个机会，对比之前使用模型或者是模拟技术得出的结果，来评估一架真飞机的性能表现。此外，测试和集成F-35上所有的新系统，就如同我在前面说过的，给了我们超过一年的提前时间来解决那些我们在后续飞机上进行测试和集成这些新系统时可能会遇到的问题。和头盔内嵌显示器和综合动力组件一起运用到后续F-35上的其它技术和功能还有F135发动机，供电系统，燃油系统，电子-液压驱动装置，驾驶舱，武器舱门，以及通风舱。因此这一最初版本的闪电II给了我们一个非常难得的在推进整个项目的同时减少风险的机会。
Let’s take the cockpit as one example of the similarities between this and subsequent aircraft. With the exception of two switches, the AA-1 cockpit is the same as the next F-35, which will be a STOVL variant. And that F-35B STOVL cockpit will be the same across all three variants. On the STOVL airplane, one switch will read “conversion” instead of “hook.” All of the other switches are the same. While the engine page on the F-35B has a display that deals with STOVL, most every other display on this variant is the same as the displays on the other variants. The missions systems are the same on all three variants. This commonality reduces the total scope—and expense—of the program. We are combining into one program what would have involved three separate and independent development programs in the past.
让我们用驾驶舱作为一个说明与后续飞机基本相似的例子。除了两个开关之外，AA-1号试飞机的驾驶舱与后面一架STOVL型的F-35完全相同。后面一架STOVL型F-35B的驾驶舱将与三种型号完全相同。在STOVL型飞机上，有一个开关上将用“转换”取代“尾钩”。其它所有的开关都是一样的。除了在F-35B上多出一个显示短距起飞、垂直降落相关数据的页面之外，试飞机其它部分的显示内容与其余型号的显示内容完全一样。试飞机的任务系统与各种型号是完全一样的。这种共性减少了整个项目的总工作量——还有费用。我们将过去可能要分成三个独立进行的试飞项目综合到了一个试飞项目里。
The electro-hydrostatic actuators, or EHAs, are another excellent example of risk reduction we’re accomplishing on AA-1. This is the first real electric jet. The flight control actuators, while they have internal closed-loop hydraulic systems, are controlled and driven by electricity—not hydraulics. The F-35 is the only military aircraft flying with such a system. We proved that the approach works on six flights of the AFTI F-16 during the concept demonstration phase of the JSF program. We already have many more flights on EHAs on this test program. Because we are flying production versions of the EHAs on AA-1, we won’t have to prove the EHA design on subsequent F-35s.
电子-液压驱动装置，缩写为EHA，是我们在AA-1号试飞机上完成的降低风险的另外一个突出例子。这是一架首次出现的真正的全电战机。在内部闭环液压系统的支持下，飞行控制的执行机构对其进行控制并通过电力——而不是液压——进行驱动。F-35是唯一一种使用这种系统飞行的军用飞机。在JSF项目，即联合攻击战斗机项目的概念演示阶段过程中，我们在F-16的AFTI（高级战斗机技术集成）改型上进行了6次试飞来验证这种工作方式的效果。在这次试飞项目里我们已经进行了更多次的有关电子-液压驱动装置的试飞。由于我们在AA-1号试飞机上飞的就是电子-液压驱动装置的生产型号，因此我们在后续的F-35上就不用再去验证电子-液压驱动装置的设计了。
What are the immediate production plans for subsequent F-35s, and how will those aircraft be used in the flight test program?
即将开始的后续F-35的生产计划如何？这些新生产的飞机会有多少架进入试飞过程？
Current plans call for fifteen flight test aircraft, including AA-1. The next four aircraft produced will be F-35B short takeoff/vertical landing, or STOVL, variants. These will be followed by three conventional takeoff and landing, or CTOL, aircraft. Then the first three carrier variant, or CV, aircraft will be produced followed by another STOVL aircraft and one more CV. Two more CTOL aircraft complete the production run of test aircraft. AF-1 and AF-2, the next CTOL variants to be produced, will be used for flight sciences; that is, they will be used to test aero-dynamics and flight controls and to expand the flight envelope. AF-3, 4, and 5 will be used to develop and test mission systems.
当前的计划需要15架试飞的飞机，包括AA-1号。接下来生产的将是4架F-35B短距起飞/垂直降落型，即STOVL。此后将是3架传统的常规起降型号，即CTOL。接下来是首批3架的舰载型号，即CV，之后将是另外一架STOVL和至少一架的CV。两架以上的CTOL型在生产出来之后将加入到试飞队伍。这两架即将生产的CTOL型编号为AF-1和AF-2，将被用于飞行研究；也就是说，它们将被用于空气动力学和飞行控制的测试以及拓展飞行包线。AF-3，4还有5号试飞机将被用于研究和验证任务系统。
We will have three F-35B, or STOVL, variants for flight sciences and two F-35Bs for testing mission systems. The first flight sciences B-model will be dedicated to STOVL operations. The other two B-models will be used to expand the flight envelope.
我们将拥有3架F-35B即STOVL型进行飞行研究，还有两架F-35B用于试飞任务系统。首架用于飞行研究的B型机将专门用于短距起飞/垂直降落的运用。另外两架B型机将被用于拓展飞行包线。
We will have four F-35Cs dedicated to the flight test program. The first two carrier variants will be used for flight sciences. The third aircraft will be used for carrier suitability testing. The fourth aircraft will be used to test mission systems.
我们将有4架的F-35C专门用于试飞项目。头两架舰载型将被用于飞行研究。第三架飞机将用于舰载适用性的验证。第四架飞机将被用来试飞任务系统。
We had as many as six aircraft devoted to testing mission systems for the F-22. We have seven aircraft in this program. Fortunately, everything we do on the F-35A for mission systems applies to the F-35B and F-35C. The variants have only minor differences in terms of antenna sizes and shapes.
在F-22项目上我们有多达6架的飞机专门用于试飞任务系统。在这个项目里我们有7架飞机来做这个工作。幸运的是，我们在F-35A上为任务系统所做的每一件事情都可以运用到F-35B和F-35C上。这些型号之间只是在天线尺寸和外形上有些微小的差别。
But the real virtue of this flight test program is that we have seven flight sciences aircraft. While the F-22 had only one true flight sciences aircraft, we need more because we have three variants as well as many external payload configurations that require testing as well. The potential external loadings on the internal weapon stations and six external hard points create a very large test matrix, which will eventually include most of the weapons carried by the F-16, F/A-18, Harrier, and A-10.
但是这个试飞项目的真正优点还是在于我们有了7架可以进行飞行研究的飞机。相比较于F-22项目中实际上只有一架真正用于飞行实验的飞机，我们这此需要如此多架是因为我们有三种型号同时还有许多的挂载配置需要进行试飞。内部武器舱的潜在挂载组合方案和6个外挂点，加上由F-16，F/A-18，海鹞，还有A-10所使用的绝大部分武器，形成了一个非常庞大的试飞矩阵。
What will be the biggest challenge for the flight test program?
试飞过程中的最大挑战是什么？
For AA-1, our biggest challenge is to be aggressive enough to find out all the things we don’t yet know about the aircraft’s performance. We have some real opportunities to learn how EHAs work at high speeds. Proving the HMD is another challenge. Testing the first aircraft gives our predictions for subsequent aircraft credibility. We want to knock off all the big risks with this first airplane and reduce all the other risks for future airplanes.
对于AA-1号试飞机来说，我们的最大挑战是要主动地去找出这架飞机上所有我们还未知的性能。我们真正有了一些在高速状态下了解电子-液压驱动装置如何工作的机会。验证头盔内嵌显示器是另外一个挑战。首架F-35的试飞给我们预示了后续飞机的可信任程度。我们想用这第一架飞机排除掉所有大的风险并且降低其它后续飞机的风险。
After that, a big challenge is managing fourteen flight test aircraft in three test sites. Testing short takeoffs and vertical landings is always a challenge. First, we have to make STOVL work. We have to make short takeoffs and vertical landings as straightforward and as easy as possible. Pilots should not have to spend most of their training time on the first and last five minutes of the flight. How we mechanize transitions from horizontal to vertical flight will free up time for training skills more pertinent to the mission.
在这之后，一个大的挑战就是在三个试飞站管理14架试飞的飞机。短距起飞/垂直降落飞机的试飞一直以来就是一个挑战。首先，我们必须要让STOVL型工作正常。我们必须要让短距起飞和垂直降落尽可能的简单，尽可能的容易。飞行员们不应该把他们的训练时间花费在飞行头尾的5分钟里。我们从水平到垂直飞行状态转换的自动程度将直接关系到把技能训练的时间归解放给任务本身的程度。
Developing mission systems will be a huge challenge, and testing those systems is one of the more critical parts of the program. The CATBird, a 737 modified to carry the F-35 sensor suite and associated systems, will help us reduce risk associated with mission systems. The number of weapons and configurations to clear also represents a challenge. If pilots can’t employ weapons, the airplane is of no value. And we are testing these weapons in a large envelope. The F-35 can maneuver post-stall like an F/A-18. So we have a lot ahead of us. But we are certainly up to these challenges.
研究任务系统将会是一个巨大的挑战，试飞这些系统也正是试飞项目当中多个重要组成部分之一。“猫头鹰”指的是一架携带了F-35传感器件和相关系统的波音737改型机，它将帮助我们降低与任务系统有关的风险。携带武器的数量和挂载方案的探索也是一个挑战。如果飞行员不能使用武器，战机也就没有价值。我们正在一个很大的包线里试飞这些武器。F-35可以和F/A-18一样飞过失速机动。因此我们的面前摆着一大堆的任务。但我们保证能够赢得这些挑战。
Eric Hehs is the editor of Code One.
埃里克·赫斯是《Code One》杂志的编辑
F-35 Lightning II Flight Tests
Chief Test Pilot Recounts Early Flights
By Eric Hehs
F-35闪电II的试飞
首席试飞员讲述初期的飞行
作者 埃里克·赫斯
The F-35 Lightning II took to the air for the first time on 15 December 2006 with chief test pilot Jon Beesley at the controls. During this maiden flight, Beesley performed a military power takeoff and executed a series of maneuvers to evaluate the handling qualities of the aircraft. The airplane flew to 15,000 feet and a maximum speed of 225 knots. The F-35 test program has since expanded the flight envelope of this first Lightning II and will continue to expand the envelope in the coming months. More importantly, this first aircraft is being used to evaluate the performance of highly sophisticated subsystems that form a baseline for subsequent F-35s.
F-35闪电II于2006年12月15日由首席试飞员乔恩·比斯利驾驶进行了首次飞行。在这次处女航过程中，比斯利在军用推力状态下起飞并执行了一系列的飞行动作来评估飞机的操作品质。飞机飞到了15,000英尺，最大飞行速度达到了225节。F-35的试飞项目从拓展首架闪电II的飞行包线开始，然后将在接下来的几个月里继续拓展这一包线。更为重要的是，首架飞机正被用于评价将构成后续F-35性能基准的各个极其尖端的子系统的性能。
Beesley has an extensive flight test résumé that begins with graduation from the US Air Force Test Pilot School in 1979. After working on several classified programs, he became one of the first USAF pilots to fly the F-117. When he left the Air Force in 1986 to join General Dynamics in Fort Worth, Texas, he initially flew developmental flight tests for an innovative night attack system for the F-16 called Falcon Eye. This program was one of the first to use helmet-mounted displays, or HMDs, and head-steered infrared devices on a tactical aircraft.
1979年毕业于美国空军试飞员学校的比斯利具有丰富的飞行履历。在多个保密项目中工作过之后，他成为了最早一批飞F-117的飞行员之一。1986年离开空军之后他加入了位于得克萨斯州沃斯堡的通用动力公司，他最早接手的试飞项目是一套供F-16使用的被称为“隼眼”的夜间攻击革新系统。这个项目也是在一架战术飞机上最早使用头盔内嵌显示器（即HMD）和头瞄红外设备的项目之一。
In 1990, Beesley became a project test pilot on the YF-22 during the Advanced Tactical Fighter competition. He was principally involved with evaluating and demonstrating the flying qualities of the YF-22. Many of these flights demonstrated the tremendous high angle of attack capabilities of the aircraft. Longtime Code One readers may recall his article on flight testing the YF-22, “Report From the Future,” in 1991.
到了1990年，比斯利成为了先进战术战斗机（即ATF）对比试飞期间YF-22的一名项目试飞员。他主要从事YF-22飞行品质的评估和演示。其中的大多数飞行都是在演示YF-22的大迎角能力。《Code One》的长期读者应该还记得他在1991年撰写的名为《来自未来的报告》的YF-22试飞文章。
After the US Air Force selected the F-22 as the winner of the Advanced Tactical Fighter competition, Beesley became the Fort Worth project pilot for the F-22 program. He was the second pilot to fly the Raptor and one of the lead pilots in envelope expansion flights. Over his career, he has accumulated more than 5,000 hours of flight time in more than forty-five different types of aircraft.
在美国空军选中了F-22作为先进战术战斗机对比试飞的优胜者之后，比斯利成为了沃斯堡F-22项目的项目试飞员。他是飞上“猛禽”的第二名飞行员，也是进行包线拓展飞行的两名主力试飞员之一。他的履历表的最后注明，他已经在45种以上不同型号的飞机上积累了超过5,000小时的飞行时间。
Beesley became chief test pilot for the F-35 program in 2002. He will be in charge of flight testing all three variants to be produced: the F-35A conventional takeoff and landing, or CTOL, variant; the F-35B short takeoff/vertical landing, or STOVL, variant; and the F-35C carrier variant, or CV. Code One editor Eric Hehs interviewed him for his impressions of flying the first F-35 and for his perspective on flight testing this and subsequent Lightning II fighters.
比斯利于2002年成为F-35项目的首席试飞员。他将主管所有三种生产型号的试飞：F-35A常规起降型，即CTOL；F-35B短矩起飞/垂直降落型，即STOVL；还有F-35C舰载型，即CV。《Code One》编辑埃里克·赫斯就首飞F-35的印象对他进行了采访，从他试飞的角度来审视这架飞机和后续的闪电II战斗机。
What is your strongest memory from the first flight of the F-35?
F-35首飞给您留下的最强烈的印象是什么？
The thrust impressed me most. The first flight profile called for the F-35 to immediately go to 15,000 feet. I had to keep the speed at 225 knots during the climb since I had to keep the gear down, which limited the maximum speed.
给我印象最为深刻的是它的推力。首飞的预案要求F-35快速爬升到15,000英尺。由于在这个过程中我要保持起落架处于放下状态（译注：新机首次试飞为保险起见，都不收起落架），我不得不把速度限制在225节，这样一来就无法以最大速度爬升。
I used nose attitude instead of modulating engine thrust to control airspeed during the climb to 15,000 feet. In other words, I had to raise the nose to slow down the airplane. I took off and started pulling back on the stick. I had to keep pulling back to stop from accelerating over the 225-knot limit. So I reached a rather steep angle, about twenty-five degrees of pitch. The steep angle, witnessed by the crowds on the ground, highlighted the raw power I was experiencing in the cockpit. The thrust surprised me. Not in the sense of “Gee, how am I going to handle all of this power?” But more like, “Wow, this is more than I expected.”
在爬升至15,000英尺高度的过程中我用机首的高度代替发动机节流阀来控制飞行速度。换句话说，我用抬高机头来降低飞机的速度。在起飞后我开始往后拉操纵杆。我要一直拉住操纵杆来防止飞机的速度超过225节的限制。很快我就把机头拉到了一个非常高的角度，大约25度这样。这样一个大的角度，地面上的人员也都看到了，突出证实了我在驾驶舱里感受到的原生动力。这样的推力让我感到惊讶。这种惊讶不是说“咦，这么大的推力我要怎么用？”的不知所措，而更像是“哇，这推力比我想象的还要大”的那种惊喜。
What was your overall impression of the airplane after that flight?
你在首飞之后对这架飞机的整体印象如何？
Overall, I was impressed by how well the entire first flight came together. I started the airplane, ran through all of our ground checks, taxied out to the end of the runway, and took off. The test team told me I taxied out to the end of the runway much faster than I did for any of the taxi tests. But I was ready to go and so was the airplane.
总的来说，我对这架飞机的综合表现是如此的优秀而留下深刻的印象。我启动飞机之后，按程序完成了所有地面检查内容，滑跑到跑道头的位置，然后起飞。测试小组告诉我说我滑跑到跑道头的过程要比我以前进行滑跑试验时快一些。我真的是想快一点飞起来，飞机也一样。
I was also pleased with how smoothly the airplane went through all the ground checks and how smoothly the airplane flew. As an example, the flap schedules on the original F-22 shook the Raptor at speeds above 200 knots. This objectionable buffet was addressed right away through a software change. Paul Metz [first pilot to fly the F-22] and I are the only two pilots who ever experienced that buffeting. I thought that I might experience some sort of buffeting with the first F-35, but I didn’t.
我也对飞机能够如此顺利地完成所有的地面检查以及飞机飞行时是如此的平稳感到满意。举个例子，F-22原始型号的襟翼在飞到200节左右时会跟约定般地使“猛禽”产生振动。通过飞控软件上的一个修改我们马上找到了产生这种令人讨厌的振动的成因。保罗·梅斯[第一名飞F-22的飞行员]和我是仅有的两名体验过这种振动的飞行员。我原本想我也会在F-35的首飞过程中遇到一定程度的振动，但实际上没有。
We learned a lot from the F-22. Our engineers deserve a lot of credit. In fact, many of those who completed the checkout and testing of similar systems on the F-22 Raptor are performing the same work on the F-35. To name a few prominent examples: Kevin McTeague works on electrical systems; John Magbuhat works on flight controls; Paul Thoennes works on hydraulics; and Roy Schoberle from Pratt & Whitney works on the F135 engine. Many others with similar experience did the design integration work over the last several years. We also have some seasoned veterans involved in flight testing the new airplanes, which includes Mary Beth O’Loughlin as the test conductor for the first flight. We have a great team.
我们在F-22上学会了很多东西。我们的工程师们完全值得信赖。事实上，有许多完成了F-22“猛禽”战机检测模拟系统的工程师们正在F-35上从事相同的工作。我可以指名道姓地举出一些突出的例子：凯文·麦克提格负责电子系统；约翰·梅格巴黑特负责飞行控制；保罗·希尼斯负责液压系统；还有来自普·惠公司的负责F135发动机的罗伊·斯库伯勒。有许多有着类似工作经验的工程师们在过去的几年里从事着综合设计的工作。我们还有一些经验丰富的熟练人员参加了新飞机的飞行测试，其中包括了担任首飞任务指挥长的玛丽·贝丝·奥洛夫琳。我们有一支很了不起的团队。
How has your impression of the F-35 changed in subsequent flights?
你对F-35在后来试飞中的印象又是如何？
I continue to be impressed with the performance of the aircraft. The F-16s flying chase don’t have near the fuel capacity or payload capability as the F-35. The Lightning II does very well in comparison. For example, the F-35 often forces the chase aircraft into afterburner when it is in military power.
我对这架飞机的性能留下的深刻印象还在继续。伴随飞行F-16并没有F-35这样的载油能力和挂载能力。闪电II相比之下要优秀的多。举个例子，F-35在军用推力状态下经常迫使追击它的飞机要打开加力。
The airplane’s handling qualities continue to be very good throughout the flight envelope. When I raise the landing gear, the airplane flies very smoothly. The landing gear is sequenced, which is unique for a fighter. The nose gear comes up first, then the main gear follows. The gears drop down in reverse order. Another strong impression is that the airplane wants to fly a lot faster than we are allowed to fly at this point in the flight test program. Most of the time we fly at about thirty to forty percent of available thrust. This airplane can go out to high subsonic speeds very easily without using afterburner.
在整个飞行包线内这架飞机的操纵品质也是相当的出色。当我收起起落架后，飞机的飞行变得非常平稳。起落架的收放是有先后顺序的，这对于一架战斗机来说也是独一无二的。机首的起落架首先收起，然后才是主起落架。起落架的放下则依照相反的顺序。另外一个深刻印象就是这架飞机总是要比我们在当前试飞进度所允许的飞行速度飞的快一点。在大多数的时间里我们都是在有效推力百分之三十到四十的状态下飞行。这架飞机能够很轻松地在不打开加力的状态下飞到高亚音速。
Describe the basic progression of the first flight tests.
请描述一下首飞测试的基本过程。
On the first flight takeoff, we received an air data degrade caution message. It indicated a mismatch in the lower-level comparison in the air data system, specifically with angle of attack. However, we had no loss of capability. Simply put, readings from the right and left air data probes need to agree within a certain tolerance, and they didn’t on the first flight.
在第一次飞行起飞之后，我们接收到了一条大气数据减少的警告信息。这表明在大气数据系统在比较基准方面有匹配不当的问题，特别是在迎角状态下。但是，我们并没有因此而影响飞行能力。在简单地打开开关读取左右大气数据探针的数据形成确定的容差值之后，这些警告信息在首飞过程中就再也没有出现过。
Because the air data system is redundant, we were able to fly on the left probe after the right one was turned off. The caution message cut the flight short, but we still managed to perform some of the planned maneuver blocks, which included throttle transients and one-half stick and pedal inputs. The handling qualities in these maneuvers were excellent with a notably smoother response and a better roll rate than I expected.
因为大气数据系统是有冗余的，我们可以在关掉右边的大气数据探针之后依靠左边的一个来飞行。这个警告信息使得飞行时间被缩短了，但我们仍然安排完成了一些计划中的飞行动作，其中包括节流阀瞬变、半杆操作和方向舵操作。在这些机动过程中所表现出来的操纵品质相当出色，响应也特别地平稳，滚转率也要比我期待的要快。
The greatest accomplishment of the first flight was the performance of the subsystems. The integrated power package, electrical, electro-hydrostatic actuators, flight control computers, and other subsystems worked without a problem for the entire flight. The performance of these systems is a great testimony to the team that brought the F-35 to first flight. After the faulty probe was replaced, we performed an additional 110-knot taxi test on 4 January to calibrate the new probe. We gathered additional air data on subsequent flights during January to further calibrate the air data system.
首飞当中最伟大的成功要数各个子系统的表现。综合动力组件，供电系统，电子-液压驱动装置，飞行控制计算机，还有其它的子系统在整个飞行过程当中没有出一点的问题。这些系统的表现是促成F-35首飞的各个团队的一个伟大证明。在更换过有问题的大气数据探针之后，我们在1月4日又额外进行了的110节滑跑测试来校准新的探针。我们在1月以后的后续飞行当中获取了更多的数据在校准大气数据系统。
On Flight 2, we cycled the landing gear and then flew formation for the first time with the gear up. On Flight 3, we performed the first military power takeoff. On Flight 4, we performed the first low-altitude maneuvering. On Flight 5, we performed the first afterburner engine transient as well as performing other engine transient testing. On Flight 6, we conducted a fuel dump test. This test was conducted early in the flight test program to gather real-world data to inform design decisions on the fuel dump mechanization for the carrier variant, or F-35C. We performed higher angle of attack maneuvers on Flight 6 as well.
在第二次试飞时，我们尝试收起了起落架并且接着第一次在收起起落架的状态下进行了编队飞行。在第三次试飞时，我们进行了首次军用推力状态下的起飞。在第4次试飞时，我们进行了第一次的低空机动。在第5次试飞时，我们实验了首次加力状态下的发动机瞬态并同时实验了其它的一些发动机瞬态测试。在第6次试飞时，我们进行了泻油测试。这个测试被安排在了试飞进度的初期以便收集真实的数据来形成舰载型号即F-35C的泻油机构设计时所需的决策依据。我们还在第6次试飞时进行了更大迎角的机动。
On Flight 7, we evaluated the speed brake operation. The F-35, like the F-22, doesn’t have a dedicated speed brake like most previous fighters. Instead, it decelerates through the flight control software by deflecting control surfaces in the same manner as the Raptor. We use the leading-edge flaps as well as the trailing-edge flaps and the rudders to slow the airplane. Unlike the F-22, the F-35A and F-35B have no ailerons. That explains why it uses a combination of leading- and trailing-edge flaps and rudders to slow down. I found that the buffet levels were very low, essentially the same as buffet levels of the F-16 with the speed brake in operation. Deceleration rates in the F-35 are similar to the F-16 as well, which is a design goal.
在第7次试飞时，我们测试了减速操作的工作情况。F-35类似于F-22，并没有和以前的战斗机一样有一个专门的减速板。取而代之的是，它是象“猛禽”那样通过飞行控制软件偏转控制面来实现减速的。我们同时使用前缘襟翼和后缘襟翼还有方向舵来使飞机减速。与F-22所不同的是，F-35A和F-35B没有副翼。这也解释了为什么它要用前缘襟翼和后缘襟翼还有方向舵的这样一种联动来降低速度。我发现相比较于F-16在使用减速板时产生的振动来说，飞机振动的级别非常小。F-35的减速速率与F-16基本相当，这也是当初设计的目标。On Flight 8, we flew the software fix for the air data system issues we saw on the first flight. The new software allowed me to use full lateral stick rolling maneuvers. Handling qualities during these rolls were outstanding with roll rates matching predictions. We had to cut this flight short because our chase aircraft had a mechanical problem.
在第8次试飞时，我们使用了改正了我们在首飞时遇到大气数据系统问题的新版软件。新版软件允许我使用全侧杆进行滚转机动。在这些滚转过程中操纵品质极其出色，滚转率与之匹配的也很准确。由于伴随飞行的飞机出现了机械故障，我们不得不提前结束了这次试飞。
On Flight 9, we performed the first afterburner takeoff. Flight 9 was also our longest flight to that point, 1.5 hours. We took off with 3,500 pounds short of a full fuel load and landed with about 4,000 pounds of fuel remaining. So we shorted ourselves more fuel than the entire internal fuel capacity of an F-16 and still flew for 1.5 hours without aerial refueling. During Flight 9, we also flew close formations, power approaches, and maneuver blocks to sixteen-degrees angle of attack at 20,000 feet.
在第9次试飞时，我们进行了首次加力状态下的起飞。第9次试飞也是当时我们所进行的时间最长的一次试飞，持续了1.5个小时。我们起飞时携带了接近满载油量的3,500磅油量，降落时机内的剩余油量大约为4,000磅。我们在没有满载燃油的情况下携带的油料也比F-16整个机内油箱所能携带的油料要多的多，并且还在没有空中加油的前提下飞行了1.5个小时。在第9次试飞中，我们还飞了密集编队，断电恢复，以及20,000英尺高度16度大迎角状态下的机动。
On Flight 10, we flew with the HMD for the first time. The mission included full-stick 360-degree rolls, snap engine transients in afterburner, and close formation flying. We also landed in fifteen-knot crosswinds for the first time. Flight 11 involved several lower altitude maneuver blocks as well as maneuvering with the speed brake. Jeff Knowles, the second pilot to fly the F-35, completed his first flight on Flight 12. I took the aircraft to 30,000 feet on Flight 13, performed a touch-and-go landing, completed maneuvers to seventeen-degrees angle of attack, and cycled the aerial refueling door.
在第10次试飞时，我们第一次使用HMD进行了飞行。飞行任务包括360库的全杆滚转，将发动机瞬态保持在加力状态，以及密集编队飞行。我们还首次完成了在15节侧风状态下的降落。第11次试飞涉及了多项减速同时的低空机动内容。杰夫·隆勒斯，第二名飞F-35的试飞员，在第12次试飞时完成了他在F-35上的首次飞行。在第13次试飞时我把飞机飞到了30,000英尺的高度，进行了一次起落架擦地复飞的降落，完成了17度迎角状态下的机动飞行，并且测试了空中加油舱的舱门。
As far as envelope expansion goes, we have conducted engine transients up to maximum afterburner from takeoff to 30,000 feet. We have been to 345 knots, 3.5 g’s, and sixteen-degrees angle of attack and seventeen degrees with the landing gear down. We have three engines available for AA-1 but have flown only one. We want to fly as many hours as we can on it.
随着飞行包线的拓展，我们已经能够在从起飞到爬升至30,000英尺的过程中将发动机瞬态提升至最大加力。我们飞到了345节，3.5个G，16度迎角以及在起落架放下的状态下的17度迎角飞行。我们为AA-1号试飞机准备了3台发动机，但我们只用其中的一台飞行。我们让它飞尽可能多的时数。
Summing up the flying characteristics: the F-35 flies a lot like the F-22 and has the size and feel of an F-16. The F-35 is a solid and very responsive airplane.
飞行特性可以总结如下：F-35飞行时很像F-22，同时在尺寸上和飞行感觉上类似于F-16。F-35是一架可靠的并且非常敏捷的飞机。
How does this test progression compare to previous fighter flight test programs you have worked?
此次的试飞过程与您之前参加过的试飞项目相比又是如何呢？
The F-35 envelope expansion and flying qualities work is similar to previous fighter programs. That similarity may give the impression that we’re conducting the same tests in the same ways. But that impression is false. A superficial comparison between the development of this fighter and the development of legacy fighters neglects mission capability.
F-35飞行包线的拓展和飞行品质的确定和之前的战斗机项目是类似的。这种类似可能会带来我们正在用相同的方法进行相同的测试这样的印象。但这种印象是错误的。这架飞机在开发过程与以往的战斗机开发过程中忽视任务能力的做法相比有着明显的不同。
Our customers are getting a whole lot more in the F-35 program. They are getting a baseline configuration with capabilities that required twenty or thirty years to develop for the F-16: infrared sensors, targeting pods, night vision systems, head-mounted cueing systems, and agile beam radars to name a few. During those years of development, the Air Force and Lockheed Martin conducted separate test programs to validate those capabilities. Those capabilities are all incorporated in this phase of the F-35 program. A truer comparison between legacy programs and the F-35 program would include the development time and cost for these additional capabilities.
我们的客户除了F-35这个项目之外还有许多工作内容。他们具有为F-16进行二十年或三十年改进所需要的进行整体性能规划的能力：比如红外传感器，目标照射吊舱，夜视系统，头盔内嵌指示系统，以及捷变波束雷达等一系列知名的技术。在这么多年的开发过程中，空军和洛克希德·马丁公司引入了独立的测试项目来验证这种能力。这样一种能力将全面综合到这个阶段的F-35项目中。要将以往的项目和F-35项目进行完整的比较将涉及到开发时间和引入这种额外能力后的代价等方面的内容。
Are any of these capabilities and systems unique to the F-35?
这些能力和系统是F-35所独有的么？
The F-35 has many unique capabilities. The helmet-mounted display and the integrated power package, or IPP, are two good examples. We began flying the HMD on Flight 10 and have flown with it on all succeeding flights. The HMD is much more than a helmet-mounted sight, which is flying in operational F-16s today as the joint helmet-mounted cueing system, better known as JHMCS. Our HMD also functions as a head-up display. That is, it shows all the information normally placed on the HUD, including speed, altitude, heading, and flight path information.
F-35有许多独特的能力。头盔内嵌显示技术和综合动力组件，即IPP，是两个很好的例子。我们在第10次试飞时开始用头盔内嵌显示器飞行并且在此后的飞行中一始使用它进行飞行。头盔内嵌显示器不仅仅只是一个像现在已经在F-16作战飞行中使用的联合头盔内嵌指示系统——即广为人知的JHMCS——那样嵌在头盔上的指示器，我们的头盔内嵌显示器还能够提供平显的功能。也就是说，它显示了所有通常在平显上才能够有的信息，包括速度、高度、方向以及飞行路径的信息。
The system is working very well, and pilots quickly forget that the flight symbology is being displayed on the helmet rather than on a conventional head-up display. We don’t have a HUD on the first F-35. And we have no plans to put one in any other F-35. Putting an HMD in the first airplane is a gutsy call. We are on track with its development. The initial results of incorporating an HMD in the test program have been better than we expected. The HMD is a significant jump in technology. This system has been performing very well.
这个系统工作的非常出色，飞行员很快就忘记了那些飞行符号是显示在头盔上而不是传统的平显上。在我们的第一架F-35上面没有平显。我们也没有打算要在其它任何一架的F-35上安装上一个。将头盔内嵌显示器在第一架飞机上投入使用是一个勇敢的预言。我们将沿着这一方向的轨迹发展下去。在试飞小组里头盔内嵌显示器协同的初步结果要比我们期昐的要好的多。头盔内嵌显示器是技术上的一次飞越。这个系统表现的非常出色。
The IPP, my second example, is a sophisticated turbine that acts as the auxiliary power unit on engine starts. When the engine is running, the IPP functions as an environmental control system, or ECS. When required, it also functions as an emergency power unit during emergency mode transitions. The IPP, then, performs the functions of three subsystems found on legacy fighters.
综合动力组件，也就是我所举的第二个例子，是一台在发动机启动过程中扮演辅助动力角色的技术成熟的涡轮发动机。当发动机运转起来时，综合动力组件就转到环境控制系统，也就是ECS发挥作用。在必要时，它还可以在应急模式转换下起到应用供电单元的作用。于是，综合动力组件就在以住战斗机的三个子系统里发挥作用。
The first F-35 represents a configuration of the aircraft before the company undertook a significant weight-reduction effort. Why is the program testing an aircraft that is not completely representative of subsequent production models?
首架F-35代表了设计公司在采取重要减重措施前的飞机框架布局。为什么此次试飞项目要试飞一种并不完全代表后续生产型号的飞机呢？
While the internal structure may be different, the shape of this first F-35 is almost identical to subsequent production versions. So gathering aerodynamic data on this configuration gives us an opportunity to evaluate performance characteristics on a real aircraft as opposed to making predictions using models or simulations. Additionally, testing and integrating all of the new systems in the F-35, as I described previously, gives us more than a year’s head start on problems that we may encounter in testing and integrating these same systems in subsequent aircraft. Along with the HMD and IPP, other systems and features incorporated on subsequent F-35s include the F135 engine, electrical system, fuel system, electro-hydrostatic actuators, cockpit, weapon bay doors, and bay ventilation. So this first version of the Lightning II gives us an outstanding opportunity to reduce risk as we move forward with the program.
尽管进气口的结构还可能会有不同，但首架F-35的外形与后续生产型号大致上是相同的。因此在这种框架布局下采集空气动力学数据，会给我们一个机会，对比之前使用模型或者是模拟技术得出的结果，来评估一架真飞机的性能表现。此外，测试和集成F-35上所有的新系统，就如同我在前面说过的，给了我们超过一年的提前时间来解决那些我们在后续飞机上进行测试和集成这些新系统时可能会遇到的问题。和头盔内嵌显示器和综合动力组件一起运用到后续F-35上的其它技术和功能还有F135发动机，供电系统，燃油系统，电子-液压驱动装置，驾驶舱，武器舱门，以及通风舱。因此这一最初版本的闪电II给了我们一个非常难得的在推进整个项目的同时减少风险的机会。
Let’s take the cockpit as one example of the similarities between this and subsequent aircraft. With the exception of two switches, the AA-1 cockpit is the same as the next F-35, which will be a STOVL variant. And that F-35B STOVL cockpit will be the same across all three variants. On the STOVL airplane, one switch will read “conversion” instead of “hook.” All of the other switches are the same. While the engine page on the F-35B has a display that deals with STOVL, most every other display on this variant is the same as the displays on the other variants. The missions systems are the same on all three variants. This commonality reduces the total scope—and expense—of the program. We are combining into one program what would have involved three separate and independent development programs in the past.
让我们用驾驶舱作为一个说明与后续飞机基本相似的例子。除了两个开关之外，AA-1号试飞机的驾驶舱与后面一架STOVL型的F-35完全相同。后面一架STOVL型F-35B的驾驶舱将与三种型号完全相同。在STOVL型飞机上，有一个开关上将用“转换”取代“尾钩”。其它所有的开关都是一样的。除了在F-35B上多出一个显示短距起飞、垂直降落相关数据的页面之外，试飞机其它部分的显示内容与其余型号的显示内容完全一样。试飞机的任务系统与各种型号是完全一样的。这种共性减少了整个项目的总工作量——还有费用。我们将过去可能要分成三个独立进行的试飞项目综合到了一个试飞项目里。
The electro-hydrostatic actuators, or EHAs, are another excellent example of risk reduction we’re accomplishing on AA-1. This is the first real electric jet. The flight control actuators, while they have internal closed-loop hydraulic systems, are controlled and driven by electricity—not hydraulics. The F-35 is the only military aircraft flying with such a system. We proved that the approach works on six flights of the AFTI F-16 during the concept demonstration phase of the JSF program. We already have many more flights on EHAs on this test program. Because we are flying production versions of the EHAs on AA-1, we won’t have to prove the EHA design on subsequent F-35s.
电子-液压驱动装置，缩写为EHA，是我们在AA-1号试飞机上完成的降低风险的另外一个突出例子。这是一架首次出现的真正的全电战机。在内部闭环液压系统的支持下，飞行控制的执行机构对其进行控制并通过电力——而不是液压——进行驱动。F-35是唯一一种使用这种系统飞行的军用飞机。在JSF项目，即联合攻击战斗机项目的概念演示阶段过程中，我们在F-16的AFTI（高级战斗机技术集成）改型上进行了6次试飞来验证这种工作方式的效果。在这次试飞项目里我们已经进行了更多次的有关电子-液压驱动装置的试飞。由于我们在AA-1号试飞机上飞的就是电子-液压驱动装置的生产型号，因此我们在后续的F-35上就不用再去验证电子-液压驱动装置的设计了。
What are the immediate production plans for subsequent F-35s, and how will those aircraft be used in the flight test program?
即将开始的后续F-35的生产计划如何？这些新生产的飞机会有多少架进入试飞过程？
Current plans call for fifteen flight test aircraft, including AA-1. The next four aircraft produced will be F-35B short takeoff/vertical landing, or STOVL, variants. These will be followed by three conventional takeoff and landing, or CTOL, aircraft. Then the first three carrier variant, or CV, aircraft will be produced followed by another STOVL aircraft and one more CV. Two more CTOL aircraft complete the production run of test aircraft. AF-1 and AF-2, the next CTOL variants to be produced, will be used for flight sciences; that is, they will be used to test aero-dynamics and flight controls and to expand the flight envelope. AF-3, 4, and 5 will be used to develop and test mission systems.
当前的计划需要15架试飞的飞机，包括AA-1号。接下来生产的将是4架F-35B短距起飞/垂直降落型，即STOVL。此后将是3架传统的常规起降型号，即CTOL。接下来是首批3架的舰载型号，即CV，之后将是另外一架STOVL和至少一架的CV。两架以上的CTOL型在生产出来之后将加入到试飞队伍。这两架即将生产的CTOL型编号为AF-1和AF-2，将被用于飞行研究；也就是说，它们将被用于空气动力学和飞行控制的测试以及拓展飞行包线。AF-3，4还有5号试飞机将被用于研究和验证任务系统。
We will have three F-35B, or STOVL, variants for flight sciences and two F-35Bs for testing mission systems. The first flight sciences B-model will be dedicated to STOVL operations. The other two B-models will be used to expand the flight envelope.
我们将拥有3架F-35B即STOVL型进行飞行研究，还有两架F-35B用于试飞任务系统。首架用于飞行研究的B型机将专门用于短距起飞/垂直降落的运用。另外两架B型机将被用于拓展飞行包线。
We will have four F-35Cs dedicated to the flight test program. The first two carrier variants will be used for flight sciences. The third aircraft will be used for carrier suitability testing. The fourth aircraft will be used to test mission systems.
我们将有4架的F-35C专门用于试飞项目。头两架舰载型将被用于飞行研究。第三架飞机将用于舰载适用性的验证。第四架飞机将被用来试飞任务系统。
We had as many as six aircraft devoted to testing mission systems for the F-22. We have seven aircraft in this program. Fortunately, everything we do on the F-35A for mission systems applies to the F-35B and F-35C. The variants have only minor differences in terms of antenna sizes and shapes.
在F-22项目上我们有多达6架的飞机专门用于试飞任务系统。在这个项目里我们有7架飞机来做这个工作。幸运的是，我们在F-35A上为任务系统所做的每一件事情都可以运用到F-35B和F-35C上。这些型号之间只是在天线尺寸和外形上有些微小的差别。
But the real virtue of this flight test program is that we have seven flight sciences aircraft. While the F-22 had only one true flight sciences aircraft, we need more because we have three variants as well as many external payload configurations that require testing as well. The potential external loadings on the internal weapon stations and six external hard points create a very large test matrix, which will eventually include most of the weapons carried by the F-16, F/A-18, Harrier, and A-10.
但是这个试飞项目的真正优点还是在于我们有了7架可以进行飞行研究的飞机。相比较于F-22项目中实际上只有一架真正用于飞行实验的飞机，我们这此需要如此多架是因为我们有三种型号同时还有许多的挂载配置需要进行试飞。内部武器舱的潜在挂载组合方案和6个外挂点，加上由F-16，F/A-18，海鹞，还有A-10所使用的绝大部分武器，形成了一个非常庞大的试飞矩阵。
What will be the biggest challenge for the flight test program?
试飞过程中的最大挑战是什么？
For AA-1, our biggest challenge is to be aggressive enough to find out all the things we don’t yet know about the aircraft’s performance. We have some real opportunities to learn how EHAs work at high speeds. Proving the HMD is another challenge. Testing the first aircraft gives our predictions for subsequent aircraft credibility. We want to knock off all the big risks with this first airplane and reduce all the other risks for future airplanes.
对于AA-1号试飞机来说，我们的最大挑战是要主动地去找出这架飞机上所有我们还未知的性能。我们真正有了一些在高速状态下了解电子-液压驱动装置如何工作的机会。验证头盔内嵌显示器是另外一个挑战。首架F-35的试飞给我们预示了后续飞机的可信任程度。我们想用这第一架飞机排除掉所有大的风险并且降低其它后续飞机的风险。
After that, a big challenge is managing fourteen flight test aircraft in three test sites. Testing short takeoffs and vertical landings is always a challenge. First, we have to make STOVL work. We have to make short takeoffs and vertical landings as straightforward and as easy as possible. Pilots should not have to spend most of their training time on the first and last five minutes of the flight. How we mechanize transitions from horizontal to vertical flight will free up time for training skills more pertinent to the mission.
在这之后，一个大的挑战就是在三个试飞站管理14架试飞的飞机。短距起飞/垂直降落飞机的试飞一直以来就是一个挑战。首先，我们必须要让STOVL型工作正常。我们必须要让短距起飞和垂直降落尽可能的简单，尽可能的容易。飞行员们不应该把他们的训练时间花费在飞行头尾的5分钟里。我们从水平到垂直飞行状态转换的自动程度将直接关系到把技能训练的时间归解放给任务本身的程度。
Developing mission systems will be a huge challenge, and testing those systems is one of the more critical parts of the program. The CATBird, a 737 modified to carry the F-35 sensor suite and associated systems, will help us reduce risk associated with mission systems. The number of weapons and configurations to clear also represents a challenge. If pilots can’t employ weapons, the airplane is of no value. And we are testing these weapons in a large envelope. The F-35 can maneuver post-stall like an F/A-18. So we have a lot ahead of us. But we are certainly up to these challenges.
研究任务系统将会是一个巨大的挑战，试飞这些系统也正是试飞项目当中多个重要组成部分之一。“猫头鹰”指的是一架携带了F-35传感器件和相关系统的波音737改型机，它将帮助我们降低与任务系统有关的风险。携带武器的数量和挂载方案的探索也是一个挑战。如果飞行员不能使用武器，战机也就没有价值。我们正在一个很大的包线里试飞这些武器。F-35可以和F/A-18一样飞过失速机动。因此我们的面前摆着一大堆的任务。但我们保证能够赢得这些挑战。
Eric Hehs is the editor of Code One.
埃里克·赫斯是《Code One》杂志的编辑
首席试飞员 "比斯利.乔恩" The chief test pilot Jon. Beesley
The first test flight of F-35 Lightning II
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